Accounting Principles

ACCOUNTING CONCEPT

            The word concept means idea or nation, which has universal application. Financial transactions are interpreted in the light of the concepts, which govern accounting methods. Concepts are those basis assumption and conditions, which form the basis upon which the accountancy has been laid. Unlike physical science, Accounting concepts are only results of broad consensus. These accounting concepts lay the foundation on the basis of which the accounting principals are formulated.

            Now we shall study in detail the various concepts on which accounting is based. The following are the widely accepted accounting concepts.

1.)       Entity Concept:-  Entity Concept says that business enterprises is a separate identity apart from its owner. Business transactions are recorded in the business books of accounts and owner’s transactions in this personal back of accounts. The concept of accounting entity for every business or what is to be excluded from the business books. Therefore, whenever business received cash from the proprietor, cash a/c is debited as business received cash and capital/c is credited. So the concept of separate entity is applicable to all forms of business organization.

2.)       Money Measurement Concept:- As per this concept, only those transactions, which can be measured in terms of money are recorded. Since money in the medium of exchange and the standard of economic value, this concept requires that these transactions alone that are capable of being measured in terms of money be only to be recorded in the books of accounts. For example, health condition of the chairman of the company, working conditions of the workers, sale policy ect. do not find place in accounting because it is not measured in terms of money.

3.)       Cost Concept:- By this concept, the value of assets is to be determined on the basic of historical cost. Transactions are entered in the books of accounts at the amount actually involved. For example a machine purchased for Rs. 80000 and may consider it worth Rs. 100000, but the entry in the books of account will be made with Rs. 80000 or the amount actually paid. The cost concept does not mean that the assets will always be shown at cost. The assets may be recorded at the time of purchase but it may be reduced its value be charging depreciation.

            Many assets de not have acquisition cost. Human assets of enterprises are an example. The cost concept fails to recognize such assets although it is a very important asset of any organization.

4.)       Going Concern Concept:- According to this concept the financial statements are normally prepared on the assumption that an enterprises is a going concern and will continue in operation for the foreseeable future. Transaction are therefore recorded in such a manner that the benefits likely to accrue in future from money spent. It is because of this concept that fixed assets are recorded at their original cost and depreciation in a systematic manner without reference to their current realizable value.

5.)       Dual aspect Concept:- This concept is the care of double entry book-keeping. Every transaction or event has two aspects. If any event occurs, it is bound to have two effects. For Rs.50000, on the other hand stock will increase by Rs.50000 and other liability will increase by Rs.50000. similarly is X starts a business with a capital of Rs. 50000, while on the other hand the business has to pay Rs. 50000 to the proprietor which is taken as proprietor’s Capital.

6.)       Realization Concept: - It closely follows the cost concept any change in value of assets is to be recorded only when the business realize it. i.e. either cash has been received or a legal obligation to pay has been assumed by the customer. No Sale can be said to have taken place and no profit can be said to have arisen. It prevents business firm from inflating their profit by recording sale and income that are likely to accrue, i.e. expected income or gain are not recorded.

7.)       Accrual Concept:- Under accrual concept the effect of transaction and other events are recognized on mercantile basic. When they accrue and not as cash or a cash equivalent is received or paid and they are recorded in the accounting record and reported in the financial statements of the periods to which they relate financial statement prepared on the accrual basic inform users not only of past events involving the payment and receipt of  cash but also of obligation to pay cash in the future and of resources that represent cash to be received in the future. For Example:- Mr. Raj buy clothing of Rs. 50000,a paying cash Rs. 20000 and sells at Rs. 60000 of which customer paid only Rs. 40000. So his revenue is Rs. 60000, not Rs. 40000 cash received. Exp. Or Cash is Rs. 50000, not Rs. 20000 cash paid. So the accrual concept based profit is Rs. 10000 (Revenue- Exp.)

8.)       Accounting Period Concept:- This is also called the concept of definite periodicity concept as per going concept on indefinite life of the entity is assumed for a business entity it causes inconvenience to measure performance achieved by the entity in the ordinary causes of business. Therefore, a small but workable fraction of time is chosen out of infinite life cycle of the business entity for measure the performance and loading at the financial position 12 months period is normally adopted for this purpose accounting to this concept accounts should be prepared after every period & not t the end of the life of the entity. Usually this period is one calendar year. In India we follow from 1^st April of a year to 31^st March of the immediately following years. Now a day because of the need of management, final accounts are prepared at shorter intervals of quarter year or in some cases a month such accounts are know a interim account.    

9.)       Matching Concept:- In this concept, all exp. Matched with the revenue of that period should only be taken into consideration. In the financial statements of the organization. If any revenue is recognized that exp. Related to earn that revenue should also be recognized. This concept as it considers the occurrence of exp. And income and do not concentrate on actual inflow or outflow of cash. This leads to adjustment of certain items like prepaid and outstanding expenses, unearned or accrued income.

            It is not necessary that every exp. Identity every income. Some exp. Are directly related to the revenue and some are directly related to sale but rent, salaries etc. are recorded on accrual basis for a particular accounting period. In other words periodicity concept has also been followed while applying matching concept.

 

10.)     Verifiable Objective Evidence Concept:- As per this concept, all accounting must be based on objective evidence. In other words, the transactions recorded should be supported by verifiable documents. Only than auditors can verify information record as true or otherwise. The evidence should not be biased. It is for this reasons that assets are recorded at historical cost and shown thereafter at historical lass depreciation. If the assets are shown on replacement cost basis, the objectivity is lost and it become difficult for auditors to verify such value, however, in resent year replacement cost are used for specific purpose as only they represent relevant costs. For example, to find out intrinsic value of share, we need replacement cost of assets and not the historical cost of the assets. 

ACCOUNTING CONVENTIONS

            The term “Accounting Conventions” refers to the customs or traditions which are used as a guide in the preparation of accounting reports and statements. The conventions are derived by usage and practice. The accountancy bodies of the world may charge any of the convention to improve the quality of accounting information accounting conventions need not have universal application. Following are important accounting conventions in use:

1.)       Convention of consistency:- According to this convention the accounting practices should remain unchanged from one period to another. It requires that working rules once chosen should not be changed arbitrarily and without notice of the effect of change to those who use the accounts. For example, stock should be valued in the same manner every year. Similarly depreciation is charged on fixed assets on the same method year after year. If this assumption is not followed, the fact should be disclosed together with reasons.

            An Enterprise should change its accounting policy in any of the following circumstances only.

(i) To bring the books of accounts in accordance with the issued accounting standard.

(ii)               To compliance with the provision of law.

(iii)              When under changed circumstances it is felt that new method will reflect more true and fair picture in the financial statement.

2.)       Convention of Conservatism:- This is the policy of playing sale game. It takes into consideration all prospective losses but leaves all prospective profits financial statements are usually drawn up on a conservative basis anticipated profit are ignored but anticipated losses are taken into account while drawing the statements following are the examples of the application of the convention of conservatism.

   (i)     Making the provision for doubtful debts and discount on debtors.

   (ii)    Valuation of the stock at cost price or market price which ever is less.

   (iii)   Charging of small capital items, like crockery to revenue.

   (iv)   Showing joint life policy at surrender value as against the actual amount paid.

   (v)    Not providing for discount on creditors.

 

3.)       Convention of Disclosure:- Apart from statutory requirement, good accounting practice also demands that significant information should be disclosed in financial statements. Such disclosures can also be made through footnotes. The purpose of this convention is to communicate all material and relevant facts concerning financial position and results of operations to the users. The contents of balance sheet and profit and loss account are prescribed by law. These are designed to make disclosures of all materials facts compulsory. The practice of appending notes relative to various facts and items which do not find place in accounting statements is in pursuance to the convention of full disclosure of material facts. For example;

            (a)    Contingent liability appearing as a note.

            (b)   Market value of investments appearing as a note.

            The convention of disclosure also applies to events occurring after the balance sheet date and the date on which the financial statement are authorized for issue. Such events include bad debts, destruction of plant and equipment due to natural calamities’, major acquisition of another enterprises, etc. such events are likely to have a substantial influence on the earnings and financial position of the enterprises. Their not-disclosure would affect the ability of the users for evaluations and decisions.

4.)       Convention of Materiality:- According to this conventions, the accountant should attach importance to material detail and ignore insignificant details in the financial statement. In materiality principle, all the items having significant economics effect on the business of the enterprises should be disclosed in the financial statement.

            The term materiality is the subjective term. It is on the judgment, common sense and discretion of the accountant that which item is material and which is not. For example stationery purchased by the organization though not used fully in the concept. Similarly depreciation small items like books, calculator is taken as 100% in the year if purchase through used by company for more than one year. This is because the amount of books or calculator is very small to be shown in the balance sheet. It is the assets of the company.