Hypothesis

Introduction

A hypothesis is a statement that predicts a specific outcome in a study, providing a concrete description rather than a theoretical one. Not all studies require hypotheses, as some are designed for exploratory purposes, known as inductive research.

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a prediction made in the form of a tentative statement. Its validity is unknown and it establishes a logical relationship between two variables. Hypotheses are subject to testing through scientific methods and are used in generalizations. It is essential for a hypothesis to be clear and precise, as vague hypotheses lead to unreliable inferences.

Setting Up Hypothesis Statements

To formally set up a hypothesis test, two statements are formulated. One statement describes the prediction, while the other encompasses all other possible outcomes related to the hypothesized relationship. In the case of predicting a relationship between variables A and B, the alternative hypothesis (Ha or H1) supports this prediction, while the null hypothesis (H0) accounts for all other possibilities. It is important to note that in certain studies, the prediction may indicate no difference or change, leading to support for the null hypothesis rather than the alternative.

Example: XYZ Company Employee Training Program

Null hypothesis (H0): As a result of the XYZ Company employee training program, there will either be no significant difference in employee absenteeism or there will be a significant increase.

Alternative hypothesis (Ha): As a result of the XYZ Company employee training program, there will be a significant decrease in employee absenteeism.

Graphical Representation and Two-Tailed Hypothesis

Graphically, the alternative hypothesis represents the prediction of a decrease in absenteeism, while the null hypothesis accounts for no difference or an increase. The concept of "one-tailed" refers to the distribution tail on the outcome variable. When a prediction does not specify a direction, a two-tailed hypothesis is formed.

Example: New Drug Treatment for Depression

Null hypothesis (H0): As a result of 300 mg/day of the ABC drug, there will be no significant difference in depression.

Alternative hypothesis (HA): As a result of 300 mg/day of the ABC drug, there will be a significant difference in depression.

Characteristics of Hypothesis in Research Methodology

Hypotheses in research methodology possess specific characteristics, which include:

1. Clarity and precision: Hypotheses should be clear and precise to ensure reliable inferences.
2. Testability: Hypotheses should be capable of being tested through empirical methods.
3. Relationship between variables: Relational hypotheses should state the relationship between variables.
4. Limited scope and specificity: Hypotheses should be narrow in scope, allowing for increased testability and specificity.
5. Explanation of relevant facts: Hypotheses must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for an explanation.

By incorporating these characteristics, researchers can develop hypotheses that contribute to the rigor and validity of their studies.

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Project Report Format

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Brand Loyalty

Brand Loyalty is a scenario where the consumer fears purchasing and consuming product from another brand which he does not trust. It is measured through methods like word of mouth publicity, repetitive buying, price sensitivity, commitment, brand trust, customer satisfaction, etc. Brand loyalty is the extent to which a consumer constantly buys the same brand within a product category. The consumers remain loyal to a specific brand as long as it is available. They do not buy from other suppliers within the product category. Brand loyalty exists when the consumer feels that the brand consists of right product characteristics and quality at right price. Even if the other brands are available at cheaper price or superior quality, the brand loyal consumer will stick to his brand.

Brand loyal consumers are the foundation of an organization. Greater loyalty levels lead to less marketing expenditure because the brand loyal customers promote the brand positively. Also, it acts as a means of launching and introducing more products that are targeted at same customers at less expenditure. It also restrains new competitors in the market. Brand loyalty is a key component of brand equity.

Brand loyalty can be developed through various measures such as quick service, ensuring quality products, continuous improvement, wide distribution network, etc. When consumers are brand loyal they love “you” for being “you”, and they will minutely consider any other alternative brand as a replacement. Examples of brand loyalty can be seen in US where true Apple customers have the brand's logo tattooed onto their bodies. Similarly in Finland, Nokia customers remained loyal to Nokia because they admired the design of the handsets or because of user- friendly menu system used by Nokia phones.

Brand loyalty can be defined as relative possibility of customer shifting to another brand in case there is a change in product’s features, price or quality. As brand loyalty increases, customers will respond less to competitive moves and actions. Brand loyal customers remain committed to the brand, are willing to pay higher price for that brand, and will promote their brand always.

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Brand identity and Brand image

Brand Identity

Brand identity stems from an organization, i.e., an organization is responsible for creating a distinguished product with unique characteristics. It is how an organization seeks to identify itself. It represents how an organization wants to be perceived in the market. An organization communicates its identity to the consumers through its branding and marketing strategies. A brand is unique due to its identity. Brand identity includes following elements - Brand vision, brand culture, positioning, personality, relationships, and presentations.

Brand identity is a bundle of mental and functional associations with the brand. Associations are not “reasons-to-buy” but provide familiarity and differentiation that’s not replicable getting it. These associations can include signature tune(for example - Britannia “ting-ting-ta-ding”), trademark colours (for example - Blue colour with Pepsi), logo (for example - Nike), tagline (for example - Apple’s tagline is “Think different”),etc.

Brand Image

Brand image is the current view of the customers about a brand. It can be defined as a unique bundle of associations within the minds of target customers. It signifies what the brand presently stands for. It is a set of beliefs held about a specific brand. In short, it is nothing but the consumers’ perception about the product. It is the manner in which a specific brand is positioned in the market. Brand image conveys emotional value and not just a mental image. Brand image is nothing but an organization’s character. 

	Brand Identity	Brand Image
1	Brand identity develops from the source or the company.	Brand image is perceived by the receiver or the consumer.
2	Brand message is tied together in terms of brand identity.	Brand message is untied by the consumer in the form of brand image.
3	The general meaning of brand identity is “who you really are?”	The general meaning of brand image is “How market perceives you?”
4	It’s nature is that it is substance oriented or strategic.	It’s nature is that it is appearance oriented or tactical.
5	Brand identity symbolizes firms’ reality.	Brand image symbolizes perception of consumers
6	Brand identity represents “your desire”.	Brand image represents “others view”
7	It is enduring.	It is superficial.
8	Identity is looking ahead.	Image is looking back.
9	Identity is active.	Image is passive.
10	It signifies “where you want to be”.	It signifies “what you have got”.
11	It is total promise that a company makes to consumers.	It is total consumers’ perception about the brand.

Focus on shaping your brand identity, brand image will follow.

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Brand Positioning

Brand positioning refers to “target consumer’s” reason to buy your brand in preference to others. It is ensures that all brand activity has a common aim; is guided, directed and delivered by the brand’s benefits/reasons to buy; and it focuses at all points of contact with the consumer.

Brand positioning must make sure that:

• Is it unique / distinctive vs. competitors?
• Is it significant and encouraging to the niche market?
• Is it appropriate to all major geographic markets and businesses?
• Is the proposition validated with unique, appropriate and original products?
• Is it sustainable - can it be delivered constantly across all points of contact with the consumer?
• Is it helpful for organization to achieve its financial goals?
• Is it able to support and boost up the organization?

In order to create a distinctive place in the market, a niche market has to be carefully chosen and a differential advantage must be created in their mind. Brand positioning is a medium through which an organization can portray it’s customers what it wants to achieve for them and what it wants to mean to them. Brand positioning forms customer’s views and opinions.

Brand Positioning can be defined as an activity of creating a brand offer in such a manner that it occupies a distinctive place and value in the target customer’s mind. For instance-Kotak Mahindra positions itself in the customer’s mind as one entity- “Kotak ”- which can provide customized and one-stop solution for all their financial services needs. It has an unaided top of mind recall. It intends to stay with the proposition of “Think Investments, Think Kotak”. The positioning you choose for your brand will be influenced by the competitive stance you want to adopt.

Brand Positioning involves identifying and determining points of similarity and difference to ascertain the right brand identity and to create a proper brand image. Brand Positioning is the key of marketing strategy. A strong brand positioning directs marketing strategy by explaining the brand details, the uniqueness of brand and it’s similarity with the competitive brands, as well as the reasons for buying and using that specific brand. Positioning is the base for developing and increasing the required knowledge and perceptions of the customers. It is the single feature that sets your service apart from your competitors. For instance- Kingfisher stands for youth and excitement. It represents brand in full flight.

There are various positioning errors, such as-

1. Under positioning- This is a scenario in which the customer’s have a blurred and unclear idea of the brand.
2. Over positioning- This is a scenario in which the customers have too limited a awareness of the brand.
3. Confused positioning- This is a scenario in which the customers have a confused opinion of the brand.
4. Double Positioning- This is a scenario in which customers do not accept the claims of a brand.

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Brand

Brand

Brands are different from products in a way that brands are “what the consumers buy”, while products are “what concern/companies make”. Brand is an accumulation of emotional and functional associations. Brand is a promise that the product will perform as per customer’s expectations. It shapes customer’s expectations about the product. Brands usually have a trademark which protects them from use by others. A brand gives particular information about the organization, good or service, differentiating it from others in marketplace. Brand carries an assurance about the characteristics that make the product or service unique. A strong brand is a means of making people aware of what the company represents and what are it’s offerings.

To a consumer, brand means and signifies:

• Source of product
• Delegating responsibility to the manufacturer of product
• Lower risk
• Less search cost
• Quality symbol
• Deal or pact with the product manufacturer
• Symbolic device

Brands simplify consumers purchase decision. Over a period of time, consumers discover the brands which satisfy their need. If the consumers recognize a particular brand and have knowledge about it, they make quick purchase decision and save lot of time. Also, they save search costs for product. Consumers remain committed and loyal to a brand as long as they believe and have an implicit understanding that the brand will continue meeting their expectations and perform in the desired manner consistently. As long as the consumers get benefits and satisfaction from consumption of the product, they will more likely continue to buy that brand. Brands also play a crucial role in signifying certain product features to consumers.

To a seller, brand means and signifies:

• Basis of competitive advantage
• Way of bestowing products with unique associations
• Way of identification to easy handling
• Way of legal protection of products’ unique traits/features
• Sign of quality to satisfied customer
• Means of financial returns

A brand, in short, can be defined as a seller’s promise to provide consistently a unique set of characteristics, advantages, and services to the buyers/consumers. It is a name, term, sign, symbol or a combination of all these planned to differentiate the goods/services of one seller or group of sellers from those of competitors. Some examples of well known brands are Mc Donald’s’, Mercedes-Benz, Sony, Coca Cola, Kingfisher, etc.

A brand connects the four crucial elements of an enterprise- customers, employees, management and shareholders. Brand is nothing but an assortment of memories in customers mind. Brand represents values, ideas and even personality. It is a set of functional, emotional and rational associations and benefits which have occupied target market’s mind. Associations are nothing but the images and symbols associated with the brand or brand benefits, such as, The Nike Shoes, The Nokia sound, etc. Benefits are the basis for purchase decision.

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Management Decision Problem & Marketing Research Problem

Defining the problem is the most important step, because only when a problem has been clearly and accurately identified can a research project be conducted properly.

• Defining the marketing research problem sets the course of the entire project

Problem definition involves stating the general marketing research problem and identifying its specific components.

• Only when marketing research problem has been clearly defined can research be designed and conducted properly.

• Inadequate problem definition is a leading cause of failure of marketing research project.

• Better communication and more involvement in problem definition are the most frequently mentioned ways of improving the usefulness of research.

Management Decision Problem

The management decision problem asks what the DM needs to do, whereas the marketing research problem ask what information is needed and how it can best be obtained.

• Research can provide the necessary information to make a sound decision.

• The management decision problem is action oriented.

It is concerned with the possible actions the DM could take.

• How should the loss of market share be arrested?

• Should the market be segmented differently?

Marketing Research Problem

The marketing research problem is information oriented. It wants to determine what information is needed to make the best decision.

• It involves determining what information is needed and how that information can be obtained effectively and efficiently.

• Whereas the management decision problem focuses on symptoms, the marketing research problem focuses on underlying causes.

Management decision problem	Marketing research problem
• Asks what the decision maker needs to do • Action oriented • Focuses on symptoms	• Asks what information is needed and how it should be obtained • Information oriented • Focuses on the underlying causes

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Research Process

Steps involved in Research Process in Research Methodology

However, the following order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural guideline regarding the research process:

1.      Formulating the research problem

2.      Review the literature

3.      Extensive literature survey

4.      Developing the hypothesis

5.      Preparing the research design

6.      Determining sample design

7.      Collecting the data

8.      Execution of the project

9.      Analysis of data

10.  Hypothesis testing

11.  Generalizations and interpretation, and

12.  Preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal write-up of conclusions reached.

A brief description of the above stated steps will be helpful.

1.      Formulating the research problem: There are two types of research problems, those which relate to states of nature and those which relate to relationships between variables. At thievery outset the researcher must single out the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he would like to inquire into.

The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with those having some expertise in the matter. In an academic institution the researcher can seek the help from a guide who is usually an experienced man and has several research problems in mind.

2.      Review the literature: The researcher must at the same time examine all available literature to get him acquainted with the selected problem. He may review two types of literature—the conceptual literature concerning the concepts and theories, and the empirical literature consisting of studies made earlier which are similar to the one proposed. The basic outcome of this review will be the knowledge as to what data and other materials are available for operational purposes which will enable the researcher to specify his own research problem in a meaningful context.

3.      Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to. The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in and should be carefully studied. A good library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.

4.      Development of working hypotheses: After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences.

5.      Preparing the research design: The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information.

There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non-experimental hypothesis testing.

6.      Determining sample design: All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items are covered no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not be true.

7.      Collecting the data: In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher. Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey.

·         By observation:

·         Through personal interview:

·         Through telephone interviews:

·         By mailing of questionnaires:

·         Through schedules:

The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking into consideration the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, financial resources, available time and the desired degree of accuracy.

8.      Execution of the project: Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and dependable

9.      Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories. Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable categories. In brief, the researchers can analysis the collected data with the help of various statistical measures.

10.  Hypothesis-testing: After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary? Hypothesis -testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, generalizations established on the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches in times to come.

11.  Generalizations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation.

12.  Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him

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